Volume 1, Number 2
Faust and The Women at Point Sur
by Jim Baird
Volume 1, Number 2
Faust and The Women at Point Sur
by Jim Baird
1. Robinson Jeffers stated in a letter to Donald Friede that he thought The Women at Point Sur was "the Faust of this generation," a heady claim (Letters 105).1 Because Faust is considered the greatest achievement of German literature, Jeffers' comment is remarkable, even in a personal letter, and uncharacteristically assertive for him. What could he have meant? There are similarities between the two works. Both have as central characters overreachers who bring ruin on those around them, both main characters are in search of a higher, or at least a different, truth than that found in ordinary reality, both receive visitations from spirits, and both are involved in disastrous relationships with women. This essay will attempt to establish connections between Goethe's drama and Jeffers' poem in the hope that the older work will shed light on the more recent poem. I think, however, that it is in the differences which lie beneath the surface connections that we will find elements which will enlighten, in particular, The Women at Point Sur. This work will also examine how Jeffers might have thought of the assumptions, aspirations, and limitations of "this generation" when he made that surprising Faustian claim for The Women at Point Sur.
2. In the basic legend, an intelligent man who knows who God is and what God requires of him loses his soul by knowingly making a pact with the devil. The legendary Faust simply wants more power, particularly power over other people, and that desire overwhelms his intellect, which should remind him of what his bargain will cost him, and also clouds his spirit, which should lead him to God. Goethe makes his Faust more interesting by identifying Faust's restlessness as the key to his salvation. Faust understands that more knowledge leads not to peace but to more questions and challenges, and therefore to more strife, not less. But he also thinks that it is the purpose of a human being to know and to try to comprehend what he or she has discovered. In the "Prologue in Heaven," God bets Satan that Faust will never be satisfied with his deeds or actions; if he ever is, Satan may take his soul. Thus each new adventure on which Faust embarks is another guarantee that his freedom is real and his soul is safe from the control of others. Just as Jeffers uses Barclay to try out various approaches to the understanding of divine power, Goethe, through the character of Faust, tries on all the philosophical, religious, and social suppositions of his day in an effort to get at truth.
3. Both Faust and Arthur Barclay are solitary men on quests for greater knowledge--or at least that is their announced purpose; each man seriously compromises that quest. Faust is an eminent scholar, honored and admired by his society; Arthur Barclay, although no scholar or theologian, is at least a man of the cloth who says that he originally undertakes his quest because he can no longer believe in the Judeo-Christian faith which he had preached for years. Those years are part of the burden of both men, and fear of old age frightens each one and pushes him to begin a new life. Each is a man of fifty, well advanced into middle age and beginning to feel that time is running out.
4. Although both are engaged in quests for knowledge and power, Faust has a further perspective on his own striving that Barclay lacks. In order to understand that difference, first let us examine three things: the deal that Faust makes with Mephistopheles, the reason that Faust came to make it, and the philosophical underpinnings of their association. The specific wager that Faust makes with Mephistopheles is that Faust will never cease his restless seeking no matter what Mephistopheles helps him to do or to discover. It is actually that very unease and dissatisfaction that brought Faust to the point of making a pact with Lucifer's agent, but Faust is wise enough to recognize that such restlessness is basic to his life. He tells Mephistopheles that if he (Faust) ever stops and asks to linger over what he has found, then Mephistopheles can take his soul:
Werd' ich zum Augenblicke sagen:
Verweile doch! Du bist so schön!
Dann magst du mich in Fesseln schlagen,
Dann will ich gern zugrunde gehn!
Dann mag die Totenglocke schallen,
Dann bist du deines Dienstes frei,
Die Uhr mag stehn, der Zeiger fallen,
Es sei die Zeit für mich vorbei! (Faust 1698-1706)
(If ever I should say to the moment,
Stay on! You are so beautiful!
Then you may cast me in chains,
Then I want to be annihilated!
Then may the dead bells toll,
Then you are free from your service,
The clock shall stop, the hands shall fall,
And time will be at an end for me.)
5. Faust seeks not peace or ultimate knowledge, but more knowledge. Before he met Mephistopheles, he was about to commit suicide by drinking poison, for he thought that he had reached the end of what he alone, unaided, could discover. His companion, Wagner, although apparently respected by others, is a pedant with a decidedly limited viewpoint. When the two of them go out into the countryside to watch the peasants singing and dancing, Wagner is repelled by their vulgarity and wants to return to the cloister. If Wagner is the best that the society of scholars can offer, Faust can receive no more help there. In contrast, Faust recognizes the vitality of the larger society, but his reputation as a scholar cuts him off from that source of energy. In the scene in the countryside, those who recognize him flock around and recall how Faust and his doctor father used to cure the sick. They respect him, but their awed admiration keeps them from embracing him a fellow human being. Faust is alienated from society and is therefore propelled toward his pact with Mephistopheles, which he signs hurriedly and rather anticlimactically, because he is certain that Mephistopheles will never be able to claim him. His restlessness, his "always roaming, with a hungry heart" has brought him thus far. Faust feels certain that the restlessness which has been the defining feature of his life will not disappear in the future, and he signs the pledge of his soul without fear.
6. Faust had been stopped from suicide by the sound of the Easter bells. Faust is careful to note that he no longer believes in the Christian message: "Die Botschaft hör' ich wohl, allein mir fehlt der Glaube/ Das Wunder ist des Glaubens liebstes Kind" (Faust 765-766). ("I understand your [the bells'] meaning but I lack faith. The miracle [of the resurrection] is belief's dearest child.") Nonetheless, Faust remembers that when he was younger and did believe in Christ's miracle, the Easter bells prompted him to wander through the countryside, observing the renewal of life in the Spring and thereby renewing his own life, his own world: "Fühlt' ich mir eine Welt entstehn" (Faust 778). ("I felt a world begin for me.") Christ is not risen, but a world is risen. Not the world but a world to which Faust feels that he may belong. The use of the term "the world" might suggest some definitive answer to humanity's ontological and theological questions. The still-striving Faust is happy enough to recognize "a world". Out of the natural and psychological forces which themselves may have brought Christianity into being come a reminder for Faust of the cycle of the earth. After hearing the Easter bells again, many years later, he goes into the countryside, and there encounters for the first time Mephistopheles in the nonthreatening form of a poodle.
7. Perhaps neither Faust nor Goethe could any longer swallow whole the message of Judeo-Christianity, but Goethe used the tradition of that religion to inform his drama and give larger, if not necessarily divine, support for Faust's belief in the permanence of his own restlessness. In the drama's "Prologue in Heaven," a scene which is a parody of the opening chapters of the Book of Job, the Lord ("Der Herr") asks Mephistopheles what he has observed on the earth, and the devil's agent replies that humanity is so pathetic in its failures and in its pitiful use of the weak faculty of wisdom that he actually hates to trouble them. When the Lord brings up Faust as an example of a good servant, Mephistopheles says that Faust is no better than the others, in fact "seiner Tollheit halb bewußt" (Faust 303) ("half aware of his craziness"). But the Lord replies, "Wenn er mir jetzt auch nur verworren dient,/ So werd' ich ihn bald in die Klarheit führen" (Faust 307-308) ("If he now serves me in only a muddled way, soon I will lead him into clarity.") Mephistopheles says that he will be able to lead Faust astray, and the Lord with confidence tells him to attempt to turn Faust away from proper behavior: "Solang' er auf der Erde lebt,/ Solange sei dir's nicht verboten./ Es irrt der Mensch, solang' er strebt" (Faust 315-317). ("As long as he is on the earth, it is not forbidden to you [to attempt to tempt Faust]. A man errs as long as he strives.") This is an ironic, perhaps cryptic endorsement of Faust. In the Bible, God presented Job as a prime specimen of humanity because he obeyed God's laws; The Lord proudly offers Faust as a continual seeker, but also as a continual failure. The Lord's description of the height of human endeavor seems to fit exactly what Faust tells Mephistopheles, (i.e., that he will never cease seeking), but the Lord also says that later in Faust's life, in fact, "soon," the Lord will enlighten Faust. Exactly what he means by this is not clear, since The Lord does not appear again in the drama; the reader must determine, like Job and like Faust, what enlightenment is. That is, the reader is a human being, just as the characters of Job and Faust have their human limitations. The voice from the whirlwind tells Job that human answers to the questions generated by the acts of God are wrong and that, furthermore, God himself offers no explanation. Job must wait and endure. The rest of Faust contains no more pronouncements from God. Perhaps the enlightenment for both characters consists in accepting the fact that no conventional, logical enlightenment is possible, either for them or for their fellow humans.2
8. After further taunting from Mephistopheles, the Lord adds that at the end of Faust's story, Mephistopheles will be forced to admit "Ein guter Mensch in seinem dunklen Drange/ Ist sich des rechten Weges wohl bewußt" (Faust 328-329). ("A good man in his darkest cravings is fully aware of the right path.") Significantly, the line does not have a qualifier such as "A good man even in his darkest cravings" but "A good man in his darkest cravings" knows what to do. "Even" would suggest that there is a reservoir of goodness in erring humans. But as stated, the line implies that "darkest cravings" are what free people to find right behavior.
9. The potentiality for enlightenment rising out of what might be regarded in conventional terms as evil brings us to Jeffers' Reverend Arthur Barclay, who indulges his "darkest cravings" throughout The Women at Point Sur. Barclay thinks that acting on his every impulse will break him through to a new knowledge--of God, of life, of what he is not sure, since, like Faust, he feels that he is left with only a set of unsatisfying illusions. His quest, however, is not for more knowledge, but for final answers. Each time Barclay finds what he thinks is an answer, though, it leads him into further confusion. Faust is wise enough to recognize confusion for what it is; Barclay, with his tunnel vision based on his own ego, thinks that he is finding answers, when in fact he is only uncovering more facetsof a mystery.
10. Barclay thinks of life as a puzzle to be solved, and his answer to his first question posits the familiar Jeffersian idea that the universe is one entity, constantly transforming itself through change, sometimes violent change, sometimes deadly change. That means that God is not an abstraction or an entity separate from the phenomenal world, but a continual interaction and transformation of all things. From this concept Barclay derives his key idea, which he repeats so many times that it becomes a mantra: "God thinks through action" (CP I 254). Barclay uses this idea to justify his aggressive, anti-social behavior. He thinks that he is making a Nietzschean breakthrough to a new dimension of reality, when in fact he only sinks deeper into egoism.
11. After Barclay has shed vocation, wife and children and moved down the coast from Monterey toward Big Sur to seek his fate, he mulls over what he might do to break out of what he takes to be the prison of humanity. A young man comes up to him with a message from his wife, and Barclay toys with the idea of murdering the messenger, but he rejects this idea. Instead, his breakout comes in the form of sexual activity, just as does the first new experience of Faust after making his pact with Mephistopheles.
12. To further establish the Faust parallel, Jeffers has Barclay encounter a Satanic figure, but in Jeffers' monistic world there is no danger of being led out of the true path by temptation, for darkness and evil are in each individual. In a Jeffersian universe, there is no personal god to appeal to, nothing to be seduced by, nothing outside the whirl of matter and energy which is the universe and god. Therefore when Barclay turns to speak to Mephistopheles, he encounters only another reflection of himself, a mirror of his own personality with horns, a beard, and a bar across the brows. Barclay makes a joke: "I see the devil is short of faces" (CP I 284). Barclay has prepared the reader for this meeting by frequently mentioning his beard before and after his dialogue with his other, darker self. He should have noticed that the god he invokes is only himself, because God is only the unanswering, unexplained universe. His alter ego tells Barclay that he must love humanity or he would not struggle so hard to lead and save his fellow creatures. Thus Barclay's own mind traps him into "saviorism," a viewpoint which Jeffers warns against in other works such as "Shine, Perishing Republic" (CP I 15).
13. But this statement is, after all, a trick of the devilish side of Barclay's personality, for it is not love but lust and power which fuel his hectoring rants. It may be disappointing, but it is not surprising that what both Faust and Barclay turn to as they begin a search for god is a simple renewal of sexual vigor, asserting themselves with much younger women: in Faust's case, Margaret and then Helen; in Barclay's, first the Native American servant Maruca, then Natalia Morhead, and finally his own daughter, April.
14.Faust is attracted to Margaret but she rejects him; he must visit a witch who restores youth to him so that Margaret will find him appealing. Barclay has his visit with a witch also; his first sexual encounter after he leaves his family is with the Native American servant Maruca, whose ugliness and position outside Barclay's own culture make her simultaneously so exotic and so repellent to Barclay that his successful liaison with her, though commercial, renews his sexual powers. He continues to exercise these powers until he performs the act which most repels readers. He rapes his own daughter, April, whose name suggests freshness and renewal and who maintains a light hold on sanity for a time but finally imagines herself to be her dead brother, Edward, who had been killed in the war.
15. At this point the parallels with Faust continue, but they become increasingly ironic and inverted. Both Faust and Barclay become sexually involved with young women to the ruin of those women. In fact, Faust's actions could be considered more monstrous than those of Barclay. Barclay briefly contemplates the murder of the messenger who approaches him at the beginning of the poem, but Faust actually does murder Valentine, Margaret's brother, who seems about to get in the way of their affair, and Faust and Mephistopheles give Margaret's mother a potion which results in her death. Faust's lack of concern for the impact of his actions on others continues in the more philosophical second part of the tragedy, when he causes the death of the old couple Baucis and Philemon by burning the forest in which they live. Faust's culpability in these deaths is questionable. Valentine wants to fight with Faust, and as a result dies; Faust did not attack him without warning. Faust did not know that the potion he and Mephistopheles gave to Gretchen's mother would kill her, and he told his minions to get Baucis and Philemon out of their cottage before it was burned, but they were frightened, remained inside, and died. Nonetheless, having set in motion the chain of events which results in these deaths, Faust is partly responsible. Thus Faust is a murderer and a seducer, while Barclay is an incestuous rapist. Why, then, do we regard Faust as a heroic figure but hold Barclay in contempt?
16. The difference lies in Goethe's plan for Faust as a character and for the drama as a whole. Goethe sees Faust as an incomplete personality whose faulty wisdom alone cannot give him peace. He lacked a missing part of his personality--in conventional terms, it appears that he needs a mate, so Goethe makes him young again and gives him a young woman. The terrible end of that relationship reveals that ordinary human sexuality and passion is a snare even more constricting than the emotional and mental battles which one wages alone. One falls in love because one thinks of one's self as lacking in some regard. Another person will fill the vacancy in one's life, but since that person seeks love for similarly selfish reasons, one finds not fulfillment but only an embarrassing reminder of one's own inadequacies.3 Thus sexual passion is finally self-referential and incestuous, a conclusion that Jeffers reached also and dramatized most vividly in The Women at Point Sur.
17. This revelation regarding the true nature of love would seem to be a dead end, but, after saving Margaret at the end of Part One of Faust--perhaps because her love for Faust is not less and no more pure than any other--Goethe starts Faust on a new attempt to integrate his personality in the second part of the drama. In an inclusive manner that no one since Dante had attempted, Goethe blends the myths of classical antiquity with the scholasticism of the Middle Ages and the rationalism of the enlightenment in order to achieve a new synthesis of knowledge, and better still, a new consciousness. There is a parody of this attempt in the story of the homounculus which Wagner produces in Faust's old laboratory. The homounculus lives in a flask but must break the bounds of his protective world and return to the sea to begin the development of a new, more perfect species. The integration is represented in serious fashion by the marriage of Faust and Helen of Troy, who both produce Euphorion, the spirit of poesy. Euphorion also represents Lord Byron, and, just as Byron died fighting for Greek independence, Euphorion also perishes, perhaps too a rare a spirit for the society which condemns a Margaret.
18. Contrast Barclay's struggles with those of Faust and it is easy to see how the ex-minister fails in his effort to expand his own personality. That effort is really an expression of his problem, not an answer to it--rather than recognizing that he needs to unite with something outside himself to know God more fully, he tries to absorb everything into himself. He identifies the totality of the universe as God and himself as a part of that universe as God, but he fails to recognize that he is only a part, that he needs to cease his ravings about his place in the universe and discover the universe itself. His sexual passion is only a way of asserting his dominance over others in an attempt to internalize what must of necessity remain outside him. There is no Helen for him--Jeffers' parody of the Faustian marriage with Helen is Barclay's rape of April, a person whose genetic composition is half that of Barclay himself and half that of his wife. The rape is another of Barclay's attempts to absorb the world into himself; it is another failure to recognize that there is a larger world which one is a part of, but which one cannot dominate. Halfway through the poem, Barclay drops his favorite motto, "God thinks through action" and begins to maintain that he has brought "love" to his followers. Since he has little interaction with those around him except to proclaim his saviorhood, it is difficult to determine what he thinks love is. By this point the narrative voice of the poem is referring to Barclay as "insane" (CP I 311). Barclay's visions become increasingly gruesome as he dwells on decay, using the word "bone" so often that it becomes a reminder of his turn inward.4 He sees not what is outside himself, no hint of something larger or at least other, only a grinning skeleton.
19. Faust, in contrast, has something else to turn to. He experiences a renewal of his energy and spirit by returning to nature, first in the scene in which he comes out of his study to see the people teeming over the countryside. Then, after his first encounters with Margaret when his relationship with her is becoming troublesome, in a scene entitled "Wald und Höhle" ("Forest and Cavern") he regains his bearings in a typically German romantic landscape, with clouds and promontories, forests, crags, and waterfalls. After the terrible conclusion of the first part of the drama, with Margaret's mother, brother, and child dead and Margaret about to be beheaded, Faust awakes to begin the second part of the drama in a sylvan landscape. Not just the abstract thought of the unity of nature, the sublimation of individual tragedy in a vast living whole, but the experience of that vastness helps to heal and revive. Faust "enters the life of the brown forest" (CP I 177).
20. Barclay has this avenue open to him, too, but he never takes it. Although Jeffers' narratives are dotted with powerful descriptions of the beauty and eternality of the landscapes in which they occur, the characters in those works, sunk in their own personal hells, rarely notice the stage on which their dramas are played out. Barclay climbs up his hill again and again because for him nature is something to be conquered, something to be overcome as he thought he had overcome and cast aside his own previous life. His daughter, at least, finds some comfort when, after she has been raped by her father, she goes to the beach at Point Sur: ". . . Lying on the pure sand/ She felt the strain loosened, the strain slid over/ Into sweet reveries" (CP I 305). April later tells her mother that she lies beside "the know-nothing ocean" (CP I 354). Part of the "strain" which animates the poem is the strain of being human, of trying to make sense of the senseless. Momentarily, the sea helps her suspend "the curious desire of knowing" (CP II 485).
21. Each poem also contains a Walpurgisnacht (Faust has two of them, a traditional witches' sabbath and a "Classical Walpurgisnacht" in Part Two). The fiery orgy which appears near the end of The Women at Point Sur is an example of traditional social values totally inverted. Rachel Morhead, the child who should represent the future of the society, is dead, killed by her distraught mother Natalia. In another perversion of Christian belief, Barclay, on being shown the dead child, shouts, suggesting a revolting communion service, ". . . hack her in pieces,/ For each a mouthful" (CP I 364). Old Morhead, who had been bedridden, joins in the bacchanal, and April, in spite of her name full of promise, kills herself.
22. Another apparent point of similarity between the two works is that an earthquake occurs in each one, but closer analysis reveals that Jeffers and Faust use this event for different purposes which underscore the different viewpoints of each author. When the ground trembles on the Point Sur coast, Barclay's followers think that he has caused it, and are confirmed in their belief that he is a leader who can save them. Barclay feels also further confirmed by this mighty event in his belief that he is God and therefore the cause of all phenomena. Thus he even tries to internalize the movement of the earth. There is of course, another symbolic meaning that Jeffers might have intended and which the characters certainly were not aware of. The earthquake in the gospels signalled the death of the savior, not his arrival.
23. There is also a great earthquake in the second part of Faust. Goethe uses the earthquake as part of his attempt to synthesize knowledge and achieve a new consciousness; in this case he is commenting on contemporary scientific views. The earthquake concerns less the advancement of the plot and the Faust story than the nineteenth century debate over whether the earth and the life upon it are a result of violent, cataclysmic events or a gradual process. The gradualists, of whom Goethe was one, eventually won the day backed by Wallace's and Darwin's theory of evolution. Goethe included the earthquake only to debunk the idea of violent change, for in Faust the earthquake accomplishes nothing. It appears only so that Goethe can use it to attack his scientific opponents. Other elementy of Faust are also primarily concerned with topical issues of the day, such as the value of paper money, the politics of the Holy Roman Empire, and various literary critical and philosophical debates. Even one of the most horrifying details in the drama, Margaret's murder of the child she and Faust have, can be taken as less a dramatic development than as Goethe's comment on the double standard for sexual behavior prevalent at the time of the drama. Unwed mothers were subjected to so much abuse and censure that there was a wave of infanticides as many young women chose to eliminate the evidence of their sin rather than face a lifetime of condemnation. Therefore one of the most unpleasant elements of Faust, Faust's lack of involvement in the life of his child and his failure to help Margaret, may be seen as Goethe's comment on male irresponsibility in the society in which he lived. Faust escapes his proper role in Margaret's and the child's deaths not because he should, but because, given the mores of the day, he so easily can escape.
24. Faust, in spite of its reputation as one of the great monuments of Western literature, is, because of Goethe's attempt to synthesize not only the classical tradition but also provide a commentary on the events of his day, less successful in dealing with what Jeffers calls "permanent things" (CP I 90). The Women at Point Sur is much less restricted to the time in which it was written. It is more like a timeless play performed against "this coast crying out for tragedy like all beautiful places" (CP I 209) than is Faust except for one animating event--the First World War. "The Women at Point Sur" takes place just when the war has ended--men like Randal Morhead are returning with nothing on their minds but the next gratification, the next thrill. Although Barclay never gives a reason for his abandonment of his faith, certainly the war, which killed his son and drove his son and daughter closer together in a relationship which angered Barclay, must have contributed to first his disillusionment and later his madness. That war cast a shadow over "this generation."
25. Barclay imagines that by engaging in sexual relationships with women and proclaiming himself a savior, he has brought "love" to "his people". What he takes to be love, of course, is no more than his own fear of his inadequacy kept at bay with wild behavior and further bizarre experiments in morality.
26. At the end of his long story, Faust is still searching, still making mistakes, but still unsatisfied as is to be his acknowledged fate. Almost his last words are:
Ja, diesem Sinne bin ich ganz ergeben,
Das ist der Weisheit letzter Sluss:
Nur der verdient sich Freiheit wie das Leben
Der täglich sie eroben muss.
Und so verbringt, umrungen von Gefahr
Hier Kindheit, Mann und Greis sein tüchtig Jahr
Solch ein Gewimmel möcht' ich sehn
Auf freiem Grund mit freiem Volke stehn.
Zum Augenblicke dürft ich sagen:
Verweile doch, du bist so schön (Faust 11573-11582)
(To this opinion I am given wholly
And this is wisdom's final say:
Freedom and life belong to that man solely
Who must reconquer them each day.
Thus child and man and old man will live here
Beset by peril year on busy year
Such in their multitudes I hope to see
On free soil standing with a people free.
Then to that moment I could say:
Linger on, you are so fair!)
27. Faust recognizes that no one can save a person save that person alone, and the welter of paths to enlightenment in Faust suggests what Jeffers wrote:
"There are many salvations--if salvation be possible" (Letters 184). And even if there is no salvation, one has lived and experienced an amazing world. In "Cawdor", Fera Martial tells the doctor, just arrived, that he is not needed because her father has died:
. . . "Oh, well," he answered
"The coast's beautiful after the rain. I'll have the drive."
"Like this old man," she said, " and the other
Millions that are born and die; come all the sloppy
way for nothing and turn about and go back.
They have the drive." (CP I 452)
1. Jeffers met his own Helen, Una Call Kuster, the woman who would later become his wife, in a German class at the University of Southern California in which they studied Faust.
2. Jeffers also relied heavily on the character of Job in developing his philosophy. See my essay, "Robinson Jeffers and the Wilderness God of the Old Testament," Contemporary Philosophy 12, 11 (September/October1989) 9-14.
3. For more analysis of love along these lines, see Theodor Reik, Of Love and Lust (New York: Grove Press, 1959), particularly pages 1-159. This work begins, by the way, with a reference to Faust.
4. Appearances of the word "bone" or "bones": CP I 242, 259, 265, 267, 271, 272 (twice), 274, 285, 301, 302, 307; "skull": CP I 259, 294; "ribs": CP I 259.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Faust in Goethes Werke in Zwei Banden. München: Droemersche Verlagsanstalt Th, KnaufNachf., 1917, 1959.
Jeffers, Robinson. The Collected Poetry of Robinson Jeffers. Ed. Tim Hunt. Three volumes. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988-1991.
The Selected Letters of Robinson Jeffers 1897-1962. Edited by Anne Ridgeway. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968. University Press, 1983.